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Module B7: Eating Disorders
Entry Scenario
The entry scenario addresses a variety of issues and problems associated with the module topic. It may be used in class to identify the needs and interests of the students, leading to the formulation of training objectives.
A 15 year-old girl comes to the clinic with her mother. She was referred by the school because her teachers noticed she has been losing weight for the past three months and that she is having concentration problems during class. She has been a high achiever in school. The mother says that her daughter has been eating alone in her room and refusing to have dinner with her family. The father is an engineer and the mother is a retired dancer. The girl started regular menses at 11, but she has had no bleeding for the last two months. She avoids fat and sweets, never eats breakfast and exercises five days a week. Her oldest brother teased her about being fat her when she was younger, around the time her periods started. She has few friends. From the school letter, you calculate a BMI of 16, which is under the 5th percentile for age and gender. The girl refuses to be either weighed or examined.
General Goals for Learners
by completing the module the participant will be able to :
- Describe the normal range of adolescent body shape, and place in context of cultural and social influences on body image
- Define common eating disorders and place in context of relevant epidemiological data and theories of causal factors
- Assess and diagnose common eating disorders
- Develop a treatment plan for an adolescent with an eating disorder, and communicate effectively with all the people involved to implement it
- Devise health promotion strategies that address body image, dieting and eating disorders
Goal I : Describe the normal range of adolescent body shape, and place in context of cultural and social influences on body image
Knowledge
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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A. Define the range of adolescent body shape - weight, height and body mass index (BMI)
- normal variations in body build
- effects of gender and puberty on fat distribution and muscle mass
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Preparatory reading Homework practice charts
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Review definitions of normal weight, height and BMI in adolescent boys and girls using weight, height and BMI charts. Review the differential effects of puberty in males and females on fat distribution, muscle mass and body shape.
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Ref 1 Websites 1, 2
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B. Identify cultural influences on body image - cultural norms
- media images
- dieting industry
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Individual preparation
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Student background preparation: Examine the portrayal of gender and body shape in advertisements, teen journals, MTV. What are the strongest influences of body image in participant’s own culture? Assess the trend in dieting behaviour in one’s own country.
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Ref 2
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C. Increase health provider’s awareness of adolescent concerns and complaints related to body image - influence of body shape on self-image
- early versus late maturer
- peer comparisons
- emergence of sexuality
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Group discussion
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Discussion questions: what is the prevailing body shape norm for differing cultures, is it changing, and why? Identify pressures to conform to an ideal. Is there a shape that is considered “abnormal”, and by whom? Discuss the particular vulnerability of adolescents to the pressures to conform. Describe the common questions and problems brought up by female and male adolescents about their bodies. Discuss the issue of health provider’s time to deal with “small” concerns, pains, and fears.
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Ref 3
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Goal 2 : Define common eating disorders and place in context of relevant epidemiological data and theories of causal factors
Knowledge
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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A. Define anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder not otherwise specified using criteria of the DSM IV and ICD 10 - physical indices
- behavioural and psychological symptoms
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Individual preparation Mini-lecture Class discussion
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Review the diagnostic criteria for different eating disorders in DSM IV and ICD 10 and the differences between the two classification systems (appendix). Discuss why it is important to consider the context of adolescence in addition to the formal diagnostic criteria. (Ref 17). List the thoughts, behaviours, and symptoms characteristic of eating disorders. Discuss the existence of “partial” or sub-clinical eating disorders that do not fulfil the classic criteria.
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Refs 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 Website 3 Appendix 1 Ref 8
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B. Assess the prevalence and gender-age distribution of eating disorders nationally and internationally
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Individual research
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Students assess own country’s statistics. What are the important trends?
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Ref 9, 10
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C. Describe the physical complications of eating disorders - endocrine disturbances
- cardiovascular effects
- growth problems
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Reading Lecture Class discussion
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Lecture issues: Explore the variability of the spectrum, depending on the disease and its management.
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Refs 4, 7, 11, 12 Websites 1, 3
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D. Describe psychological effects and co-morbidities of eating disorders, such as - obsessive-compulsive disorder
- depression
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Class discussion
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Introductory minilecture if needed. Participants share knowledge gained from clinical experience with eating disorders. Acknowledge the importance of identifying a co-existing obsessive disorder or depression. What are possible social consequences of having an eating disorder?
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Ref 4, 13 Website 4
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E. Discuss short and long term prognoses for each eating disorder in psychological and physical terms, including mortality
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In discussion, include the prognosis of sub-clinical (partial) syndromes.
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Refs 8, 11, 14, 15
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F. Examine current research on factors associated with the development of eating disorders - sexual abuse
- family communication
- genetics
- personality factors
- dieting as risk factor
- fat deposits of puberty
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Reading Mini-lecture Class discussion
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Lecture topic: Review the most current evidence of risk factors and associations. Discussion question: what are the implications of research indicating an addiction may develop to an endorphin reaction to starvation?
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Refs 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
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Goal 3 : Assess and diagnose common eating disorders
Knowledge
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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A. Indicate the key items on patient history, and on physical and psychological assessment leading to the diagnosis of an eating disorder - weight + nutritional status
- eating and exercising patterns
- body shape+ body image concerns
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Interactive lecture Case study
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Case study:
Parents bring in their 17 year-old daughter who, they suddenly realize, no longer eats with the family, complains about fatigue after swimming training, and has changed to wearing baggy clothes all the time. How would you take the history and which questions would you ask to whom? What signs would you look for on the physical examination? How would you perform a mental health exam?
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Ref 14 (Table 2) Module A3
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B. Identify clinical manifestations of eating disorders, including atypical forms, in very young adolescents and in males
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Minilecture Group discussion
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Discuss fat phobia, selective eaters, food avoidant emotional disorders
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Refs 4, 9, 21, 22, 23
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C. Identify strategies commonly used to conceal the behaviours associated with eating disorders
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Focus group Small group discussion
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Research indicated that UK doctors have a low index of suspicion for eating disorders and difficulty recognizing the possible disorder. What factors in addition to patient’s concealment may contribute to this?
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Ref 7
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Skills
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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D. Demonstrate obtaining relevant information from an adolescent with a suspected eating disorder, and explaining findings to patient and his/her parents
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Small group work using role play followed by plenary review Simulated patients
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Utilizing questions from case study in objective A, role play the following cases. Case study 1:
A very thin mother and her 12 year-old girl comes to the clinic because the mother feels concerned about the weight of her daughter. The girl did not want to come to the clinic and denies any change in her eating habits. She complains that her mother is very intrusive, and that she started serving the family too much fast food during weekends. The mother reveals a strong family history of both eating disorders and obesity. Case study 2:
A 15-year old girl with a BMI of 18 wants to become a model. She feels fat and requests a dietary plan. Case study 3:
A 14 -year old girl with normal weight presents to the emergency room with heartburn. The physician notices erosion of her teeth and calluses on the back of her hand. The girl will not admit to vomiting. Small groups explore the approaches that successfully open the communication. Also, formulate appropriate responses to a thin girl who insists she is fat.
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Module A3
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Attitudes
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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E. Discuss provider’s personal attitudes towards eating disorders and body image
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Self-reflection, and small group discussion
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Discuss how the health provider’s gender, own body size and personal diet and activity habits may influence his or her assessment and recommendation regarding diet and activity of an adolescent. What is the influence of provider’s gender on his/her sensitivity to the issues of eating disorders? What are the issues for overweight health professionals in assessing eating disorders?
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Goal 4: Develop a treatment plan for an adolescent with an eating disorder, and communicate effectively with all the people involved to implement it
Knowledge
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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A. Evaluate the evidence for effective treatment of different eating disorders
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Reading Minilecture Discussion
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Suggested lecture theme: Provide evidence for the effectiveness of available treatment modalities such as family therapy, psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioural therapy, medication, and nutritional interventions. Discuss simple behavioural strategies for bulimia such as self-help groups and self-management plans.
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Refs 4, 7, 11, 24
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B. Demonstrate knowledge of the treatment and prognosis of chronic eating disorders
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Small group work
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Review data on the prognosis of different eating disorders and discuss possible treatment strategies for chronic eating disorders. What are the important considerations in designing a treatment plan?
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Refs 14, 21
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C. List medical and psychological criteria for hospitalisation and for discharge
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Guidelines handout Group work on case study
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Case study: A 16 year- old girl has been hospitalised for two months because of anorexia. She was able to increase her BMI from 14 to 16, and she resumed having her menses. However, she is worried about going home because she feels she will relapse when she is living with her dysfunctional family again. Participants should obtain a listing of the local medical criteria for emergency hospitalisation and for inpatient treatment of eating disorders in their home country, as well as addresses of available treatment facilities in their area.
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Ref 7
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Skills
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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D. Develop a management plan for the adolescent with an eating disorder - multidisciplinary approach (or specific specialists on case by case basis)
- legal and child protection issues (voluntary and involuntary medication)
- partnerships with family and adolescent
- need for hospitalisation
- criteria for discharge
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Case studies
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Case study:
A 15 year- old girl presents with amenorrhoea, low weight, low blood pressure, cold extremities, and hypokalaemia at the emergency room. There is need for immediate hospitalisation but the parents refuse, arguing that their daughter will have a psychiatrist appointment within a couple of days. Case study
A 12 year-old boy presents with growth failure for the last two years. His BMI is on the 10th centile. He has hypothyroidism and carotenemia. He has no concerns about his current weight and shape, although he has no appetite and is phobic about becoming fat. His father had a heart attach two years ago and is chronically unwell. There are no organic abnormalities. An atypical eating disorder is suspected. What are the specific issues for medication in young males with atypical eating disorder?
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Refs 4, 7, 11, 14, 25
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E. Demonstrate skill in the medical management of the short and long-term effects of restricted intake, vomiting, and purging
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Role play
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Role play how to proceed with a 15 year-old girl who presents with amenorrhoea, low weight, low blood pressure, cold peripheries, and hypocalcaemia. Briefly discuss the implications of child protection laws for treatment of eating disorders. Case study:
An 18 year- old girl with chronic eating disorder has a BMI of 14, is vomiting twice a day and has lost 2 kg in the last 2 months. She has had two previous hospitalisations and dropped out of psychiatric treatment a few months ago. The girl refuses to be rehospitalised, and the parent are extremely worried.Issue: Is there a role for mandatory medication?
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F. Demonstrate effective communication in sensitive situations - ambivalence/denial of diagnosis
- problematic family
- rejection of psychological services
- differences/conflict within management team
- non-compliance
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Small group work
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Case study 1:
A 16 year-old girl with an eating disorder has not been following her management plan. She claims that her nutritionist and nurse gave different advice than the physician, and she feels the female health providers understand her needs better than the male physician. Case study 2:
The parents (both physicians) of a 15 year-old prepubertal girl with short statue and low food intake refuse to accept that their daughter has an eating disorder or that she should see a psychiatrist. All medical tests for other causes have been negative. The girl is uncooperative. You have no doubt about the diagnosis. Suggested group work: Develop strategies for engaging patients with psychological services when there is a refusal to accept the psychological nature of the condition.
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Module A3
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G. Indicate how to plan follow up after discharge with both the patient and the family.
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Goal 5 : Devise health promotion strategies that address body image, dieting and eating disorders
Knowledge
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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A. Assess current knowledge of prevention of eating disorders - caution on overemphasis of weight and cardiovascular themes
- dieting: a modifiable risk factor
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Literature review followed by class discussion
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What risk factors are currently being discussed in the literature as possible targets for intervention? Discuss the potential for harm of individual and population interventions concerning weight and body image.
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Refs 19, 26, 27 Module B2
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B. Explore the role of health provider in early detection/secondary prevention - use of a risk factors profile?
- secondary prevention or early detection of subclinical syndroms
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Small group discussion
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Case study:
You receive a telephone call from a school nurse about a girl who might have a mild eating disorder. The nurse has not told the girl of her concerns, and asks you how she should handle the case. In what ways can the health provider help young adolescents better understand the causes of pubertal body changes? Consider ways of developing early intervention programs for subclinical eating disorders in schools and community settings.
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Skills
Training Objectives
Key topics to be covered
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Educational Methodology
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Activities, Issues, and Questions
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Pertinent resources
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C. Respond to requests for community programming concerning eating disorders
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Small group work with plenary
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Case study:
A school nurse has recently had three cases of anorexia in her school and asks you to design an educational preventive program. What is your response? Discussion topic: If you were asked to speak at a school about eating disorders, what would be the main message to give to 15-16 year olds? What would be said to 9-12 year olds? What should not be said?
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References
- Mackenzie R. Neinstein LS. Eating Disorders, chapter 34 in Adolescent Health Care: A Practical Guide, 4th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2002.
- Field AE, Camargo CA Jr, Taylor CB, Berkey CS, Roberts SB, and Colditz GA. Peer, Parent, and Media Influences on the Development of Weight Concerns and Frequent Dieting Among Preadolescent and Adolescent Girls and Boys. Pediatrics 2001; 107(1): 54 - 60.
- Caspar RC, Offer D. Weight and dieting concerns in adolescents, fashion or symptom? Pediatrics 1990; 86(3)384-90.
- American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement. Identifying and treating eating disorders. Pediatrics 2003; 111:204-11. (Website 4)
- Cooper JE. WHO ICD-10 Classification of mental and Behavioural Disorders - Pocket Guide. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh 1991.
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
- Golden NH, Katzman DK, et al. Eating Disorders in Adolescents. Position paper of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. J. Adoles Health 2003;33:496-503. (Website 1)
- Scott J. Crow, W. Stewart Agras, Katherine Halmi, James E. Mitchell, Helena C. Kraemer. Full syndromal versus subthreshold anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder: A multicenter study. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2002; 32(3):309-318.
- Braun D, Sunday SR, Huang A, Halmi KA. More males seek treatment for eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 1999;25(4):415-424.
- Gross J, Rosen JC. Bulimia in adolescents: prevalence and psychosocial correlates. Int J Eating Disord 1988; 7:51-61.
- Fisher M, Golden NH, et al. Eating Disorders in Adolescents: A Background Paper. J Adolesc Health 1995;16: 420-37.
- Siegel JH, Hardoff D. et al. Medical Complications in Male Adolescents with Anorexia Nervosa. J Adolesc Health 1995;16: 448-453
- Neumark-Sztainer , Story M, French S, Resnick MD. Psychosocial correlates of health compromising behaviors among adolescents. Health Educ Res 1997; 12: 37-52.
- Rome ES, Ammerman S, Rosen DS et al. Children and adolescents with eating disorders: the state of the art. Pediatrics 2003; 111(1)e98-e108.
- Saccomani L, Savoini M, Cirrincione M, Vercellino F, Ravera G. Long-term outcome of children and adolescents with anorexia nervosa- a study of comorbidity. J Psychosom Res 1998; 44: 565-71.
- Fairburn CG, Welch SL, Doll HA, Davies BA, O’ Connor ME. Risk factors for bulimia nervosa. A community-based case-control study. Arch Gen Psych 1997; 54: 509-17.
- French SA, Story M, Downes B, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Frequent dieting among adolescents: Psychosocial and Health Behavior Correlates. Am J Public Health 1995; 85: 695-701.
- Garner DM. Pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa. Lancet 1993; 341:1631-34.
- Resnick M, Bearman P, Blum R, Bauman K, Harris K, Jones J, Tabor J, Beuhring T, Sieving R, Shew M, Ireland M, Bearinger LH, Udry J. Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. J Am Med Assoc 1997; 278(10):823-32.
- Story M, French SA, Neumark-Sztainer D, Downest B, Resnick MD, Blum RW. Psychosocial and behavioral correlates of dieting and purging in Native American adolescents. Pediatrics 1997; 99: 1-8.
- American Psychiatric Assoc. Practice guidelines for eating disorders (revision). Am J Psychiatry 2000;157(suppl):1-39.
- Carlat DJ, Camargo CA, Herzog DB. Eating Disorders in Males: A report on 135 patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154(8):1127-1132.
- Farrow JA. The adolescent male with an eating disorder. Pediatric Annals 1992; 21:769-773
- North C, Gowers S, Byram V. Family functioning and life events in the outcome of adolescent anorexia nervosa. Brit J Psychiatry 1997; 171: 545-9.
- Mahan LK, Rees M J. Nutrition in Adolescence. Times Mirror/Mosby College Publishing, St. Louis1984.
- Walsh BT, Devlin MJ. Eating Disorders- progress and problems. Science 1998; 280: 1387-90.
- Steiner H, Lock J. Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa in children and adolescents – a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Ch Adol Psych 1998; 37:352-59.
Websites
- http://www.usc.edu/adolhealth (click “eating disorders”)
- http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/
- http://www.adolescenthealth.org/eating_Disorders_in_Adolescents.pdf
- http://www.aap.org (click “policy statements”, find and click title of reference 1)
- http://www.jama.ama-assn.org (free abstracts)
Appendix 1
I - Revision of the diagnostic criteria for eating disorders in DSM IV:
Diagnostic Criteria for Anorexia Nervosa
- A. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for age and height (e.g., weight loss leading to maintenance of body weight less than 85% of that expected; or failure to make expected weight gain during period of growth, leading to body weight less than 85% of that expected)
- B. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight.
- C. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight.
- D. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhoea, i.e. the absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles. (A woman is considered to have amenorrhea if her periods occur only following hormone, e.g., estrogens administration)
Specify type:
- Restricting Type: during the current episode of Anorexia Nervosa, the person has not regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas)
- Binge-Eating / Purging Type: during the current episode of Anorexia Nervosa, the person has regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas)
Diagnostic Criteria for Bulimia Nervosa
- A.Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge-eating is characterized by both of the following:
- eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount of food that is definitely larger than most people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar circumstances.
- A sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g:, a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating)
- B.Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviour in order to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise.
- C.The binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviours both occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months.
- D.Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight.
- E.The disturbance does not occur exclusively during episodes of Anorexia Nervosa.
Specify type:
- Purging Type: during the current episode of Bulimia Nervosa, the person has regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas.
- Non purging Type: during the current episode of bulimia nervosa, the person has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as fasting or excessive exercise, but has not regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics or enemas.
Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified
This category is for disorders of eating that do not meet the criteria for any specific Eating Disorder. Examples include:
- For females, all of the criteria for Anorexia Nervosa are met except that the individual has regular menses.
- All of the criteria for Anorexia Nervosa are met except that, despite significant weight loss, the individual’s current weight is in the normal range.
- All of the criteria for Bulimia Nervosa are met except that the binge eating and inappropriate compensatory mechanisms occur at a frequency of less than twice a week or for a duration of less than 3 months.
- The regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviour by an individual of normal body weight after eating small amounts of food (e.g., self-induced vomiting after the consumption of two cookies).
- Repeatedly chewing and spitting out, but not swallowing, large amounts of food.
- Binge-eating disorder: recurrent episodes of binge eating in the absence of the regular use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors characteristic of Bulimia Nervosa.
II- Revision of the diagnostic criteria for eating disorders in ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders:
Diagnostic Criteria for Anorexia Nervosa
- A.There is weight loss or, in children, a lack of weight gain, leading to a body weight at least 15% below the normal or expected weight for age and height.
- B.The weight loss is self-induced by avoidance of “fattening foods”.
- C.There is self-perception of being too fat, with an intrusive dread of fatness, which leads to a self-imposed low weight threshold.
- D.A widespread endocrine disorder involving the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is manifest in women as amenorrhoea and in men as loss of sexual interest and potency. (An apparent exception is the persistence of vaginal bleeds in anorexic women who are on replacement hormonal therapy, most commonly taken as a contraceptive pill).
- E.The disorder does not meet criteria A and B for bulimia nervosa.
Atypical anorexia nervosa
Disorders that fulfil some of the features of anorexia nervosa but in which the overall clinical picture does not justify the diagnosis. For instance, one of the key symptoms, such as amenorrhoea or marked dread of being fat, may be absent in the presence of marked weight loss and weight-reducing behaviour. This diagnosis should not be made in the presence of known physical disorders associated with weight loss.
Diagnostic Criteria for Bulimia Nervosa
- A.There are recurrent episodes of overeating at least twice a week over a period of 3 months) in which large amounts of food are consumed in short periods of time.
- B.There is persistent preoccupation with eating, and a strong desire or a sense of compulsion to eat (craving).
- C.The patient attempts to counteract the “fattening” effects of food by one or more of the following:
- self-induced vomiting
- self-induced purging
- alternating periods of starvation
- use of drugs such as appetite supressants, thyroid preparations or diuretics; when bulimia occurs in diabetic patients they may choose to neglect their insulin treatment.
- D. There is self-perception of being too fat, with an intrusive dread of fatness (usually leading to underweight).
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